Discover ADHD symptoms, diagnosis, and management strategies. Get informed and find support on Meri Sehat.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Medilink Consultant clinic

Online Consultation

ZAKA CLINIC GULBERG LAHORE

Saad Ullah Siddiqui

Overview

Individuals, diagnosed with ADHD might have trouble focusing and directing complete attention to one objective, moreover, they may be inclined to submit to urges frequently and may exhibit signs of lack of impulse control (may act without pondering what the outcome will be), or alternately be excessively dynamic<a href="#accordion">[6]</a>. 
&nbsp;

ADHD is viewed as a constant and demanding condition and is known to affect the person in numerous facets of their life including scholastic and professional accomplishments, platonic and romantic connections, and achieving routine goals<a href="#accordion">[8]</a>.

&nbsp;ADHD can unfortunately prompt severely debilitated confidence and social capability, especially in children, when not treated properly<a href="#accordion">[9]</a>.&nbsp;Grown-ups with ADHD might encounter persistent troubles with self-esteem, awareness towards analysis, and harsh and stern self-analysis potentially coming from more elevated levels of analysis throughout life<a href="#accordion">[3]</a>.&nbsp;Of note, ADHD can present differently, especially through signs and symptoms in childhood and adulthood.

Approximately 8.4% of kids and 2.5% of grown-ups have ADHD<a href="#accordion">[12]</a>. ADHD is often diagnosed in school-matured kids when it prompts disturbance in the study hall or issues with homework. It is more usually analyzed among young men than young women given contrasts in how the signs and symptoms present. Although, this fails to imply that young men are bound to have ADHD. Young men will generally display characteristic signs of hyperactivity and other externalizing symptoms while young women will quite often have latency and an inclination towards inactivity.

&nbsp;

There are three main types of ADHD. These include the following: 
&nbsp;

<h5>1. Predominantly Inattentive Type</h5>

Inattentiveness surpasses the stereotypical notion of absent-mindedness and rather, encompasses a myriad of challenges. This type of ADHD commonly alludes to difficulties with being persistent with a single objective, diverting undivided attention to the task at hand, and remaining organized by adhering to a schedule.&nbsp;

The individual may be unable to dedicate time and energy to specific details and subtleties or is prone to make accidental and avoidable errors in everyday scheduled tasks and undertakings.&nbsp;

Moreover, the individual might present additional cases of consistent inattentiveness while attending academic sessions, they might be likely to zone out of conversations or have trouble committing to long novels or articles to peruse.&nbsp;When called or addressed, it may be difficult to grasp their attention as they might be interested and occupied with something else.&nbsp;

Neurodivergent individuals might struggle with maintaining a routine through strict organization, where they might underestimate factors that may disrupt their rhythm and way of life such as travel time to reach a destination punctually or overwhelming themselves at work by agreeing to multiple projects and ensuing chaos, and missing important deadlines such as due dates for utility bills because of lack of organization.

Contrary to disorganization leading to burnout, individuals diagnosed with ADHD might fear stepping out of their comfort zones by avoiding intimidating situations. Therefore, they may be unable to perform to their maximum potential as they would dodge undertakings that require consistent mental exertion, for example, getting reports ready, and finishing structures, and express frequent dislike towards such activities.

Because of associated inattentiveness, they find it hard to keep track of their items and frequently lose things required for errands or day-to-day existence, for example, school papers, books, house or car keys, wallets, and spectacles. This ingrained habit of not keeping track of things and other symptoms may trigger an individual to be easily flustered and get distracted from present tasks<a href="#accordion">[7]</a>. 
&nbsp;

<h5>2. Predominantly Impulsive Or Hyperactive Type</h5>

The second type of ADHD is what normally people associate with ADHD. Hyperactivity alludes to unreasonable movement, which could be expressed through, uncontrollable squirming, a spontaneous burst of energy, not being able to stand by in one position for too long, and being garrulous.&nbsp;

Impulsivity alludes to choices or moves initiated on a whim without thoroughly or strategically considering the outcomes. This type is more likely to be traced back to most physical signs such as the individual may squirm or fidget a lot with repeated gestures, rhythmic taps, and snaps, or shivers throughout their bodies, they may also visibly wriggle and squirm in their seat. Furthermore, they are bound to express discontentment in monotony while being expected to remain in one position such as in a classroom or a cubicle at the office. Hyperactive individuals may have a different gait and style of walking from time to time, they may saunter or run, skip, or prance, anything that may be different from the normal pace. Because of their constant internal lack of contentment, they may not believe they are entitled to unobtrusive activities, or they will have a hard time accepting that they have earned the right to relax.&nbsp;

Hyperactive or impulsive ADHD patients may have developed personality traits that indicate inexplicable urgency and impatience. They will continuously be moving around, walking at a fast pace and around people who move leisurely, they would not stay still while talking to another person and change postures continuously, they may have a habit of rambling or generally talking quickly and giving unnecessary details, moreover in an academic setting they may proclaim a response before an inquiry has been done (for example might complete individuals&#39; sentences, can hardly stand by to talk in discussions). ADHD-diagnosed individuals experience issues hanging around in lines or queues for their turn, such as waiting for their orders at restaurants<a href="#accordion">[7]</a>. 
&nbsp;

<h5>3. Combined Type</h5>

An individual is eligible for a diagnosis for this kind of ADHD when the two measures for both, inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive types have been presented. As ADHD is categorized as a neurodevelopmental disorder, it falls under the category of clinical psychology and is, therefore, commonly analyzed by psychological well-being specialists or essential medical health professionals<a href="#accordion">[7]</a>.

An individual diagnosed with combined ADHD will be directed through a complete psychiatric assessment which could lead to basic or clinical outcomes. Such symptoms are better analyzed by people in close correspondence with the patient, and therefore elaborate forms must be filled out by the guardians, other parental figures, and instructors, complete mental and clinical history, family ancestry, and data regarding schooling, climate, and childhood.

It might likewise incorporate a reference for clinical assessment to preclude other ailments<a href="#accordion">[7].</a>&nbsp;These thorough and rigorous assessments could help identify possible symptoms such as consistent procrastination, crippling anxiety, trouble recognizing people or remembering important dates-anything that&#39;s typically associated with memory placement, trouble managing emotions such as outrageous anger and built-up frustration directed towards nothing specific, constant challenges with respecting authority and rules, also finding it difficult to adhere to a schedule, fear of commitment in romantic and platonic relationships, frequent mood swings ranging from hyperactive enthusiasm to drained down gloominess, and more symptoms indicating a combination of inattentiveness and hyperactivity/impulsiveness<a href="#accordion">[4]</a>.

It is important to state how symptoms of the specific types of ADHD are not static and may be prone to changes after some time as an individual age. For example, in younger children diagnosed with ADHD, the second listed type is more prevalent. It combines with juvenile enthusiasm and activeness, and therefore, hyperactivity-impulsivity is the most overwhelming symptom or sign that could indicate the development of ADHD<a href="#accordion">[10]</a>.

However, as the body grows, the mind of the young child being malleable adapts to different symptoms which may be more pertinent to elementary school such as the increase in academic responsibilities could allow more opportunities for the child to present cases of inattentiveness, by finding it difficult to focus on classes and submit assignments on time, this could, consequently, result in the child struggling scholastically.&nbsp;

While going through puberty, hyperactivity appears to diminish and symptoms may be more probable to range from episodes of anxiety to squirming, yet inattentiveness and impulsivity might be underlying causes of the evident behaviors. Numerous young adults with ADHD likewise find themselves grappling with interpersonal problems such as building bonds, connecting with people, and forming relationships and therefore, may develop an introverted and antisocial personality. Absentmindedness, fretfulness, and impulsivity will often persevere into adulthood<a href="#accordion">[10]</a>.

&nbsp;

Causes

Despite being one of the most researched and investigated in child and adolescent psychology, researchers have not yet distinguished the predominant causes of ADHD. While there is developing proof that hereditary qualities add to ADHD and a few genes have been connected to the disorder, no single gene or gene combination has been recognized as the contributing factor to the neurodevelopmental disorder.&nbsp;

Nonetheless, it is essential to take into consideration the fact that family members of people with ADHD are frequently likewise impacted. There is proof of physical and anatomical contrasts in the cerebrums of children with ADHD compared to kids without the condition. For example, children diagnosed with the disorder have diminished gray and white cerebrum matter volume and show dissimilar brain area activity during specific assignments<a href="#accordion">[11]</a>.&nbsp;

Advanced examinations have demonstrated that the cerebrums, caudate core-the nucleus, and cerebellar vermis of the brain are the significantly highlighted regions that are impacted in ADHD<a href="#accordion">[15]</a>.&nbsp;

A few non-hereditary elements have likewise been connected to the disorder, for example, low birth weight, untimely birth, the child&#39;s exposure to harmful substances (liquor, smoking, lead, and so on) during pregnancy, and intense stress during pregnancy<a href="#accordion">[6]</a>.

&nbsp;

Diagnosis

Diagnosing ADHD, particularly in children can be a challenging situation. What increases the obstacle is the lack of a single diagnostic test. Specialists analyze ADHD in kids and teenagers by careful examination of symptoms with the child, guardians, and educators, and by noticing the kid&#39;s ways of behaving<a href="#accordion">[4]</a>.&nbsp;

A recent report published in 2017 featured and mentioned the advantages of another test to analyze grown-up ADHD, yet numerous clinicians accept an ADHD diagnosis is near impossible to be validated through one test<a href="#accordion">[16]</a>. There are various modes of communication, meetings, and survey techniques that are utilized to assess behavior, and can be presented by relatives, the kid&#39;s educators or academic counselors, or others who have an intimate and impactful relationship with the child.&nbsp;

ADHD rating scales may likewise be utilized to survey the youngster&#39;s behavior and give a rating against a pre-discussed, normalized, and standardized set of markers. Moreover, there is a model depicted in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders by the American Psychiatric Association which is referred to while investigating prospective patients with ADHD, it acts as a universal checklist and is, therefore, even used in Pakistan<a href="#accordion">[14]</a>.&nbsp;

To be clinically diagnosed with ADHD, a specific criterion has been laid out and presented to the medical fraternity according to which the child must regularly show at least six symptoms of one or the other or both the inattentive or potentially hyperactive/impulsive classifications, in more than one setting, and over a time of more prominent than a half year<a href="#accordion">[14]</a>.&nbsp;

It is vital to take note that some issues can present with symptoms similar to ADHD, for example, learning problems, temperament problems, anxiety, substance use, head wounds, thyroid circumstances, and utilization of certain meds like steroids.&nbsp;ADHD may likewise co-exist with other psychological well-being conditions, for example, oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder, anxiety disorders, and learning problems<a href="#accordion">[2]</a>.&nbsp;

Subsequently, a full psychiatric assessment is vital. There are no blood tests or routine imaging for ADHD analysis. Now and again, patients might have alluded to extra psychological testing, (for example, neuropsychological or psychoeducational testing) or may go through computational tests to survey the seriousness of side effects<a href="#accordion">[7]</a>.&nbsp;

These tests could include<a href="#accordion">[4]</a>:

&nbsp;

<ul>
	<li>A clinical and social history of both the patient and the family.</li>
	<li>A neurological evaluation that incorporates screenings of vision, hearing, and verbal and coordinated movements. More tests might be given assuming hyperactivity might relate to another issue.</li>
	<li>An assessment of the knowledge, inclination, character qualities, or processing abilities. These are usually determined by the guardians and educators of the child, if they are of a young school-going age.</li>
	<li>A scan is known as the Neuropsychiatric EEG-Based Assessment Aid (NEBA) System. This test allows doctors to estimate theta and beta mind waves. The theta/beta proportion has been demonstrated to be higher in youngsters and youths with ADHD than in kids without ADHD.</li>
</ul>

&nbsp;

It is likewise conceivable to find ADHD while looking for proficient assistance for different disorders, like severe anxiety or clinical depression. On the off chance that such symptoms are noticed along with ADHD, the individual ought to look for clinical counsel from the medical care proficient for therapy choices<a href="#accordion">[14]</a>.

&nbsp;

Treatment

There is hitherto no cure for ADHD but there are treatment options that allow individuals to deal with ADHD symptoms in a manner that does not interfere with their daily routines. The two main types of treatment can be categorized as chemical through medications or psychological through therapy<a href="#accordion">[10]</a>.

&nbsp;

<h5>1. Medication</h5>

&nbsp;

<ul>
	<li>
	Stimulants
	</li>
</ul>

Doctors and child psychologists rely on a certain type of medication that falls under the banner of stimulants to treat ADHD.&nbsp;For some, the choice of a stimulant as a treatment option may seem peculiar and strange but it has a variety of advantages.

Stimulants are effective for people with ADHD as they help in promoting and expanding the cerebrum chemicals, dopamine, and norepinephrine, which play fundamental roles in cognitive reasoning and attention.

With clinical observation, medicated stimulants are viewed as safe and cautious choices. However, as is the case with all drugs, they can lead to undesirable side effects if not administered carefully, particularly when abused or taken in overabundance of the endorsed portion and require the individual&#39;s medical care supplier to regularly screen how they might be responding to the prescription.

&nbsp;

<ul>
	<li>
	Non-Stimulants
	</li>
</ul>

The other type of medication prescribed to individuals with ADHD is non-stimulants. These prescriptions take more time to show their efficiency and efficacy than stimulants; however, they can likewise further develop concentration, attention, and impulsivity in an individual with ADHD.

Specialists might endorse a non-stimulant in certain conditions such as when an individual has irksome side effects from stimulants, when a stimulant is not viable or accessible, or in a mix with a stimulant to speed up the process. Albeit not endorsed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) explicitly for the treatment of ADHD, a few antidepressants are utilized alone or in a mix with a stimulant to treat ADHD.

Antidepressants might alleviate the overwhelming coexisting conditions of ADHD and can be all endorsed on the off chance that a patient has vexatious incidental effects from stimulants. Antidepressants can be useful in blending with stimulants if a patient likewise has another condition, for example, a persistent anxiety disorder, has displayed visible signs of depression, or has another state of mental disorder. Non-stimulant ADHD drugs and antidepressants may likewise cause some unpleasant side effects, and therefore, should be taken as per the prescribed dosage. 
&nbsp;

<h5>2. Psychological Intervention</h5>

&nbsp;

<ul>
	<li>
	Behavioral Therapy
	</li>
</ul>

This is kind of psychotherapy helps an individual with changing their behavioral reactions. It could range from practical assessments, for example, guidance with effective time management, the proper organization of tasks, completing homework and assignments as per the situated deadlines, or managing genuinely troublesome occasions.&nbsp;

Behavioral therapy is used as a social treatment that can likewise educate an individual with ADHD on how to screen their way of behaving, frequently shower oneself with self-accolades and treats for behaving in an ideal manner, like controlling outrage or thinking before acting.&nbsp;

Moreover, most therapists include and encourage guardians, educators, and relatives to provide positive criticism on specific ways of behaving and assist with laying out clear standards, task records, and organized schedules to assist an individual with controlling their way of behaving.&nbsp;

Specialists may likewise show kids interactive abilities, for example, how to stand by, share toys, request help, or react to anticipated bullying. Figuring out how to peruse and understand facial expressions and the manner of speaking with others, and how to answer properly can likewise be essential for interactive abilities and training.

&nbsp;

<ul>
	<li>
	Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
	</li>
</ul>

This type of therapy is necessary as it assists an individual with figuring out and perceiving their thoughts. Moreover, it encourages self-love by teaching individuals with ADHD to be more tolerant towards one&#39;s contemplations and sentiments to further develop concentration and fixation.

The advisor additionally empowers the individual with ADHD to conform to the life-altering events that accompany treatment, like reasoning before acting, or fighting the temptation to indulge in pointless and risky challenges.

&nbsp;

<ul>
	<li>
	Parental Or&nbsp; Family Therapy
	</li>
</ul>

This holds paramount importance as parents and family members should know what to expect and how to guide children with ADHD. This sort of therapy shows guardians&#39; abilities for empowering and compensating positive ways of behaving in their kids.

Guardians are instructed to utilize an arrangement of remunerations and outcomes to change a kid&#39;s way of behaving, to give prompt and positive input for ways of behaving they need to empower and to disregard or divert ways of behaving they need to deter.

&nbsp;

<h5>3. Stress Groups</h5>

Stress groups or support groups are helpful to ward off feelings of loneliness. Most individuals with ADHD have trouble coping because they are under the impression that there is something wrong with them. Stress groups guide and support individuals and family members with living proof of how differences and quiddities can make someone unique. Members of such groups have weekly sessions to discuss problems they may have faced in their lives and may gather advice from more mature individuals who have managed to thrive.&nbsp;

Doctors and patients need to work collaboratively to find a treatment option that works. Because ADHD has differing symptoms, all individuals will not respond to treatment, therefore, it is necessary to consult a licensed practitioner. 
&nbsp;

<h5>Coexisting Conditions</h5>

It is unfortunate but individuals diagnosed with ADHD may be prone to and more vulnerable to other mental illnesses and cognitive disorders<a href="#accordion">[1]</a>.&nbsp;Some of the most common ones have been discussed below:

&nbsp;

<ul>
	<li>
	<a href="https://www.merisehat.pk/disease/anxiety" target="_blank">Anxiety </a>Disorders
	</li>
</ul>

Individuals with ADHD can find it hard to stay aware of everyday undertakings, keep up with connections, etc. This can build the possibility of developing crippling <a href="https://www.merisehat.pk/disease/anxiety" target="_blank">anxiety</a>.

Individuals with ADHD are additionally bound to encounter an anxiety disorder more than those without ADHD, as indicated by numerous research papers, academic peer reviews, and medical journals. But the kind of anxiety disorder may differ from patient to patient, contingent on their upbringing and traumatic experiences.&nbsp;The three most prevalent types are:

&nbsp;

1.&nbsp;Socialized <a href="https://www.merisehat.pk/disease/anxiety" target="_blank">Anxiety</a>: This is characterized by social tension, which can make an individual fear social and heavily popular places, especially school cafeterias or cafes, recreational spots, and activities that may have a high possibility of social interactions.

2. Separation <a href="https://www.merisehat.pk/disease/anxiety" target="_blank">Anxiety</a>: This type of anxiety disorder is more evident when the individual respects and admires a personal relationship, whether romantic or platonic. The fear of abandonment is constant as the individual has intrusive thoughts of being away from friends and family members they are close to.

3. General <a href="https://www.merisehat.pk/disease/anxiety" target="_blank">Anxiety</a>: This type of anxiety is undervalued and used as pejorative by belittling a person who struggles with general anxiety. It is the summed-up uneasiness when the individual feels apprehensive about terrible things occurring and/ or anticipating bad things to happen.

&nbsp;

Anxiety disorders are discouraging for budding individuals and children, therefore, should be dealt with professionally, so that the symptoms do not hinder a child&rsquo;s prospects. 
&nbsp;

<ul>
	<li>
	<a href="https://www.merisehat.pk/disease/depression" target="_blank">Depression</a>
	</li>
</ul>

Emotions are expected reactions, moreover, it is healthy to address sentiments. Feeling dejected, upset, and demoralized are routine emotions in every child&#39;s life. The persistent feeling of despair and despondency; however, are alarming factors that can create some issues.

Individuals, especially kids, diagnosed with ADHD have a higher probability of developing childhood depression than those who are not neurodivergent<a href="#accordion">[5]</a>.&nbsp;This feeling of gloom and despair births from the lack of control most ADHD individuals feel, and experiencing these symptoms can discourage them and increase their frustration. Such built-up resentment and internalized depression cause individuals with ADHD to separate themselves from social places and interactions.

This is damaging for children as it may prove to be cumbersome to develop friendships and bonds and may have adverse effects on their academic endeavors. Behavioral changes that may spark suspicion include the general feeling of disappointment, constant downcast, not finding joy in things that previously excited them, sleeping or not leaving their beds for a long period, skipping meals, or frequent announcements of self-deprecation.

Kids with ADHD frequently struggle with completely focusing on things that are not extremely fascinating to them. Depression can make it hard to invest time and energy in typically fun things. Changes in eating and dozing propensities can likewise be an indication of depressive episodes. For kids with ADHD who take medicated and administered drugs, changes in eating and resting can likewise be the aftereffects of the prescription as opposed to indications of depression.&nbsp;It is, therefore, crucial to communicate openly with their doctor if they have any concerns. 
&nbsp;

<ul>
	<li>
	Learning Disorders
	</li>
</ul>

It is not unheard of for children with ADHD to develop learning disorders, and because of their neurodevelopmental disorder, they are more vulnerable to learning disorders.&nbsp;Such an additional condition can further weaken their grasp of tasks and assignments and debilitate their academic record.&nbsp;

Individuals with ADHD may develop dyslexia which is the difficulty in reading or other learning disorders which are diagnosed once the child is in an academic setting. Dyscalculia which is defined as the difficulty with math or dysgraphia which is described as the difficulty with writing can also be seen in children with ADHD<a href="#accordion">[1]</a>. 
&nbsp;

<ul>
	<li>
	Behavioral Disorders
	</li>
</ul>

Behavioral disorders have a high prevalence in individuals with ADHD because they struggle with impulsivity and retention, and their insecurity of being completely different.&nbsp;Individuals with ADHD find it challenging to control their temper and anger in frustrating situations, they may also exhibit proper signs of oppositional defiant disorder where they argue and irk individuals without any reason because of the perception that they are misunderstood. They may even be aggressive because of underlying conduct disorder<a href="#accordion">[1]</a>.

Regardless of coexisting conditions, it is important to treat ADHD like any other disorder. This is why it is necessary to seek out professional therapists and healthcare providers that can guide the patient individually and in a more personalized manner i.e. according to the patient&rsquo;s situation, in a safe and healthy environment.

&nbsp;

Scientists remain puzzled at the specific causes of ADHD, albeit many examinations and research papers indicate that genes and gene combinations assume a huge and contributing part. In the same way as other different problems, ADHD likely is an outcome of a mix of variables and risk factors.

&nbsp;Along with hereditary qualities, specialists are taking a gander at conceivable natural factors that could increase the risk of developing ADHD and are concentrating on how brain and head wounds, nourishment or lack thereof, and social conditions could act as risk factor for ADHD.

&nbsp;According to statistics, ADHD is more prevalent in men than women, this has; however, been associated with the lack of regard and attention dedicated to the female psychiatric and general welfare. But existing statistics do prove that women with ADHD are bound to have inattentive ADHD-type symptoms predominantly.&nbsp;

Individuals with ADHD frequently have different circumstances, for example, learning incapacities, <a href="https://www.merisehat.pk/disease/anxiety" target="_blank">anxiety </a>attacks, conduct disorder, <a href="https://www.merisehat.pk/disease/depression" target="_blank">depression</a>, and substance abuse<a href="#accordion">[10]</a>.

&nbsp;

Because of its rampant prevalence, ADHD is highly researched to help children learn to live with the symptoms and to recommend parents ways of alleviating symptoms. A new survey of studies recommended that exercise was one of the most important non-medicated methods for further developing mental abilities frequently impacted by ADHD.&nbsp;These range from routine activities and tasks such as building the capacity to focus and working memory.&nbsp;

Another investigation discovered that aerobic exercises or more specifically oxygen consuming activities might assist children diagnosed with ADHD to help cognitive skills by becoming defter or ease their transformation and conformity to new circumstances even more without any problem.&nbsp;One more review checked out at kids 6 to 10 years of age. It found that young girls with ADHD who routinely participated in after-school sports had milder side effects by age 12, contrasted with young girls who played sports occasionally<a href="#accordion">[13]</a>.

&nbsp;

Key Points

<ul>
	<li>Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is the most common type of neurodevelopmental disorder.</li>
	<li>It is categorized through impulsivity/ hyperactivity or inattentiveness or a combination of all.</li>
	<li>Scientists have not found the cause of ADHD but it may be associated with genes.</li>
	<li>There is no cure for ADHD but there are treatment options to ease an individual&rsquo;s discomfort.</li>
	<li>Medications are either stimulants or non-stimulants, both are used to help various cognitive functions.</li>
	<li>Psychological interventions include different types of therapies, such as behavioral, cognitive, and familial to allow individuals and close friends to identify and respond to symptoms healthily and productively.</li>
	<li>Individuals with ADHD may be at risk for other conditions such as <a href="https://www.merisehat.pk/disease/depression" target="_blank">depression</a>, <a href="https://www.merisehat.pk/disease/anxiety" target="_blank">anxiety </a>disorders, learning disorders, and behavioral disorders.</li>
</ul>

&nbsp;

[1] Angel, T. (2021, October 13). Everything You Need to Know About ADHD.

[2] Austerman, J. (2015). ADHD and behavioral disorders: Assessment, management, and an update from DSM-5. Cleveland Clinic journal of medicine, 82(11 Suppl 1), S2–S7.

[3] Beaton, D., Sirois, F., & Milne, E. (2022). Experiences of criticism in adults with ADHD: A qualitative study. PLoS ONE 17(2).

[4] Bhargava, H. D. (2021, February 22). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). WebMD.

[5] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2022). Other Concerns and Conditions with ADHD.

[6] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, September 23). What is ADHD?

[7] Elmaghraby, R., & Garayalde, S. (2022, June). What is ADHD? American Psychiatric Association.

[8] Harpin, V. (2005). The effect of ADHD on the life of an individual, their family, and community from preschool to adult life. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 90 Suppl 1(Suppl 1), 2-7.

[9] Harpin, V., Mazzone, L., Raynaud, J. P., Kahle, J., & Hodgkins, P. (2016). Long-Term Outcomes of ADHD: A Systematic Review of Self-Esteem and Social Function. Journal of Attention Disorders, 20(4), 295-305.

[10] National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (2021, September). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

[11] Pliszka, S., & Issues, A. W. (2007). Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(7), 894-921.

[12] Simon, V., Czobor, P., Bálint, S., Mészáros, A., & Bitter, I. (2009). Prevalence and correlates of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: meta-analysis. The British journal of psychiatry: the journal of mental science, 194(3), 204–211.

[13] Starkman, E. (2021, March 29). ADHD: Latest Research. WebMD.

[14] The Aga Khan University Hospital (AKU). (2022). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

[15] Tripp, G., & Wickens, J. R. (2009). Neurobiology of ADHD. Neuropharmacology, 57(7-8), 579–589.

[16] Ustun, B., Adler, L., Rudin, C., Faraone, S. V., Spencer, T. J., Berglund, P., . . . Kessler, R. C. (2017). The World Health Organization Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Screening Scale for DSM-5. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(5), 520–526.